Philosophy Of Religion An Historical Introduction Philosophy Essay

Philosophy Of Religion An Historical Introduction Philosophy Essay Linda Trinkaus Zagzebski is a highly qualified American writer. She has done her PhD from University of California, Los Angeles, MA from University of California, Berkeley and BA from Stanford University. At the moment she is a Research Professor of Philosophy at the University of Oklahoma. Other books by the same author include On Epistemology, Divine Motivation Theory, Intellectual Virtue: Perspectives from Ethics and Epistemology, Virtue Epistemology: Essays on Epistemic Virtue and Responsibility, Virtues of the Mind, The Dilemma of Freedom and Foreknowledge, Rational Faith: Catholic Responses to Reformed Epistemology and Readings in Philosophy of Religion: Ancient to Contemporary. Summary of the Book The writer has written at length on a subject that is of immense interest to the students of philosophy. The writer has given a historical perspective of philosophy but not in a chronological order. She has adopted the conventional approach of dividing chapters into topics. The book has many ancient, medieval and modern examples on philosophy of religion. Book contains a lot of references and the writer has given her own views and position and not just the review / survey of literature. The writer has elaborated some of the standard issues regarding philosophy of religion. The chapter on the problem of evil includes issue of value. The chapter on immortality deals with the question that whether death is bad. The chapter on divine nature dilates on personhood and revelation. The chapter on religious diversity addresses the question why this issue has gained importance in modern period. The core topics included in this book are the relationship between religion and philosophy, the exis tence of God, religion and morality, the problem of evil, death and afterlife and the problem of religious diversity. The book is lucid, elegantly written and an outstanding introduction to the field of philosophy of religion. Authors Thesis Chapter 1 deals with the Philosophical Approach to Religion. In this chapter, the writer discusses relationship between religion and philosophy. Then the writer tells us about origin of religion. She defines religion as a complex human practice. A commonality between all religions is a sacred space. The concept that what should one believe about the ultimate matters of universe, actually marks the intersection of philosophy and religion. Philosophy originated in the 6th Century. A lot of great thinkers Confucius, Mahavira, Hebrew Prophets, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle lived at the same time. This age is known as Axial Age. Afterwards writer discusses the idea of god in different religions. Then the writer compares religion and philosophy that they were not always in harmony with each other. Philosophers did not necessarily approve of the rationale in the religion. Chapter 2 deals with the Classical Arguments for the Existence of God. The writer in this chapter deals with the very question that Does God Exist? She gives the theist and atheist perspective. She argues that religion should have philosophical and scientific reasons, only then in the modern era masses will get convinced. She says that some providential designer of the universe exists. Existence of nature, planets everything is not by chance and has been intelligently maintained and designed. Chapter 3 deals with the Pragmatic Approach to Religious Belief. In this chapter writer tells us that Pascal believed that religion cannot solely rest on reason. According to him faith is higher than reason. Pragmatic arguments are benefit directed. She says that it is better to believe in God then not to believe at all. Chapter 4 deals with Who or What is God? God is the supreme being, designer of the universe and the creator. All these characteristics can only be attributed to one greatest conceivable being. We only know what god is not, rather what he is. So we can only picturize what he is not. Writer discusses at length the omnipotent and omniscient characteristics of God. Chapter 5 Deals with Fate, Freedom and Foreknowledge. All the civilizations had the concept of fate and destiny. Greek gods knew about the future but could do nothing to stop it. Anything that happens is because of Gods will. God knows what is going to happen. Chapter 6 deals with the Problem of Evil. The concept of evil has given rise to atheism. How can there be evil if there is a perfectly good god. The writer says that if god is the god of the whole humanity then why some people suffer and some are blessed. Why evil is ever increasing. There is no good without evil, good requires evil to differentiate. Chapter 8 deals with the Death and the Afterlife. Writer says that every person fears death and according to Aristotle ones death is according to ones life. She explains concept of death by giving example of the views of Epicurus. What makes a person the same person? Is it body or stream of conscious state held together in memory? Chapter 9 deals with the Problem of Religious Diversity. The writer says that in ancient times there was no conflict in religions. Pantheons of god of one ancient group were not rivals of the gods of the other. If you want to follow a new religion or get an opinion then ask someone who is neutral and is a follower of no religion, only then he/she can give you objective description and not a subjective one. It is only when the people we admire have a different opinion that we begin to think and question our own ideas. Chapter 10 deals with Faith, Reason and the Ethics of Belief. In this chapter the writer takes on the very question that she took in the first chapter that What should I believe about the ultimate matters of universe? According to writer reason and revelation cannot be in conflict. Writer says that miracles were given to prophets as a sign and testimony that revelation is from God. Prophets were given powers to perform miracles. Critical Analysis of the Book First of all this book should not be made part of the Book Review. According to Imam Haddad in his book Book of Assistance Muslims should not read literature that is contrary to the Muslim Belief of God. Chapter 2 and 4 (Existence of God Who or What is God) are very disillusioning. It is not encouraged in Islam to read such literature. For someone who is not a student of philosophy, this book is fairly complex and complicated. The writer has given examples which a reader with no prior knowledge of philosophy cannot comprehend easily. This book is fairly concise, consisting of ten chapters that cover nearly all of the traditional topics. However, she doesnt even mention the Islamic version of philosophy of religion in the explanation and elaboration of different chapters. Islamic concept of Death and Afterlife is not given, Islamic concept of God and the purpose of mankind to worship Allah (SWT) is not shed light on. This book is more historically informed. Book is full of references, arguments and quotations from Cleanthes and Plato to Ramakrishna and Aquinas, which makes it cumbersome to read and the reader loses interest. To her credit, Zagzebski does not try to hide this fact. At the end of chapter one, for instance, she concedes that some remaining chapters do not make sense, if there is no God. Furthermore, she admittedly assumes that God exists in her discussion of the concept of God. One wonders what exactly Zagzebski has in mind when she refers to God as the perfectly good being. Zagzebski thinks she has located in her theory a position that eliminates the problem of evil at the level of the metaphysics of value (158). Her ideas in the chapter of Who and What is God are not very convincing. I cannot let some of Zagzebskis metaphors go without comment. In her introduction to the problem of evil, moreover, while addressing the difficulty of understanding Gods motives in allowing human suffering, she compares humans to dogs (143). This was a very vague example. In Chapter 9 while discussing Faith and Reason (213), she criticizes that Abraham sacrificed his son thinking its the commandment of God, its unreasonable to kill an innocent child. In my opinion Islam gives a detail account of the event and the reason and rationale behind this act, which the Muslims all over the world still cherish. Conclusion General Recommendations It is a very well written book and has been thoroughly investigated and footnoted. There is a bibliography and index at the end. This book is highly recommended to the students of philosophy at the post graduate level due to its complexity.

Managed Care Essay

As recently as 1960, before the onset of managed mental health care, the roles of psychiatrists, psychologists, and clinical social workers tended to be distinct. Psychiatrists had the overall responsibility of patient care, conducted psychotherapy, prescribed medication, and supervised hospital care. Clinical psychologists conducted testing and provided group therapy and other therapeutic modalities in institutions and hospitals. Clinical social workers performed comprehensive psychosocial assessments, counseled regarding family issues, and created discharge plans for patients in social services agencies. At that time, the mental health field was far from overcrowded. With psychiatrists’ shift in emphasis, clinical social workers and clinical psychologists assumed more responsibility in mental health treatment, and psychotherapy, in particular. The proliferation of managed care companies during the 1980s furthered the increased involvement of clinical social workers and clinical psychologists. Because of improved training and the less-expensive nature of their services, clinical social workers and clinical psychologists were more involved in providing psychotherapy to patients suffering from mental illness. (Committee on Therapy, Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry, 1992). Conflict in Roles According to Gibelman & Schervish managed health care companies have continued this trend of expanding the roles and responsibilities of nonmedical providers–primarily clinical social workers and clinical psychologists–while narrowing the scope of psychiatric practice. Managed health care companies see clinical social workers in particular as an economical, substitutable source of labor for both clinical psychologists and psychiatrists in the treatment of patients suffering from mental illness. Presently, clinical social workers provide a wide array of services to clients with mental illness in a variety of settings and at all functional levels of practice. Clinical social workers practice in institutions, hospitals, school systems, clinics, correctional facilities, and private practices. They function in positions of direct service, supervision, management, policy development, research, community organization, and education and training. Clinical social workers frequen tly perform assessments and arrange and develop services. In these roles they serve as gatekeepers and treatment providers. For some time, clinical social  workers have performed the largest portion of psychotherapeutic work done in the United States. Clinical social workers provide as much as 65 percent of all psychotherapy and mental health services (1997). Payers have begun to ask, â€Å"What type of therapist is the most cost-effective?† and â€Å"What is the advantage of paying one profession higher fees than another for rendering the same service?† when an objective review of empirical studies shows that there is no absolute proof that one profession can perform psychotherapy better than another. Such research leads managed care companies to conclude that many of the cheaper sources of labor in the mental health field, such as clinical social workers, are as effective in administering treatment to patients suffering from mental illness as other more-expensive practitioners (Gibelman & Schervish, 1997) Individual verse Group Practice With managed care’s influence, outpatient treatment, and private practice, in particular, has become a viable and increasingly important role for clinical social workers. Although mental health clinics and other institutions provide the greatest opportunity for clinical social workers, a growing number are now carrying out services in a primary setting of solo or group private practice (Gibelman & Schervish, 1996). In 1995, 19.7 percent of NASW members cited private solo and group as their primary practice, and 45.5 percent as their secondary practice setting (Gibelman & Schervish, 1997). Findings indicate that the proportion of clinical social workers entering and practicing as private practitioners continues to grow (Gibelman & Schervish, 1996). The future treatment of patients in solo private practice may be in jeopardy, as managed care companies force clinical social workers and other mental health care providers to join group practices. In group practices, clinical social workers, in combination with other mental health practitioners, provide individual and group therapy, family interventions, and a variety of other services, all through one office (Shera, 1996). These groups provide â€Å"one-stop shopping,† as well as greater access to less-expensive professionals, such as master’s-level clinical social workers. Managed care companies find that group practices are more efficient and cost-effective in the management of a population of patients (Johnson, 1995). As managed care companies continue to reduce reimbursement dollars, changes in multidisciplinary team structures are inevitable, with even more  reliance on master’s-level service providers. Practitioner distinctions already have begun to diminish in favor of more team-oriented models, with the boundaries between the uniqueness of the individual disciplines beginning to blur (Eubanks, Goldberg, & Fox, 1996). Psychiatrists often head the team, coordinating services in conjunction with psychotherapists and other mental health care providers on the treatment team. However, it is not unusual for a clinical psychologist or even a clinical social worker to lead the team, with the psychiatrist relegated to the role of psychopharmacology consultant rather than an active team member (Brooks & Riley, 1996). Treatment In addition to changing the role of mental health practitioners and the structure of treatment teams, managed care has forced the clinical social work profession and the mental health field in general, to examine how its members provide care. Managed care companies are exploring new ways they can provide the most effective services to more people under increasing resource constraints (Shera, 1996). The transition from fee-for-service to managed mental health care services has created an entirely new culture for mental health care providers and consumers (Geller, 1996). Practitioners must accommodate their treatment to the preferences of managed care. Otherwise, they risk a decrease in referrals, which could ultimately lead to loss of status and income. Managed health care companies have exerted influence on the ways that mental health practitioners conceptualize their practice, forcing treaters to modify therapeutic interventions and practice protocols significantly (Shera, 1996). Brief therapy now appears to be the preferred mode of intervention (Gibelman & Schervish, 1996). Long-term psychotherapy has been virtually eliminated for all but private-pay patients. Managed care companies find that studies of short- and long-term therapy suggest that brief approaches are as good as or better than long-term treatment, except in special cases (Lazarus, 1996). The majority of interventions distinguishing themselves in comparative outcome studies are based on behavioral or cognitive-behavioral theories. These treatments tend to be goal- and present-oriented, behaviorally specific, symptom-directive, advice giving, educational, collaborative, and aimed toward the resolution or amelioration of symptoms in relatively brief periods (Johnson, 1995). The  shift in preference to brief modes of therapy by managed care organizations has changed expectations for therapists. Theoretical orientation of practitioners has become of great interest as managed care companies look fo r practitioners who use brief treatment methods (Giles, 1993). The practitioners most significantly affected by managed care’s shift in preferred mode of treatment have been those who provide the extensive and intensive treatments of psychoanalysis and psychodynamic psychotherapy, predominantly clinical psychologists. Their emphasis on Freudian psychotherapies, which generally have a very long duration of outpatient care and discouraging results in the outcome literature, have been, criticized heavily (Giles, 1993). Emerging models of psychotherapy endorsed by managed care organizations assume that the psychotherapeutic process occurs in pieces over time. In these models, psychotherapy functions as an active working relationship between the patient and the therapist, whereby the goal is defined as change rather than cure. Managed care companies’ focus on resolving patients’ acute symptoms, rather than ridding them of their mental health conditions, has led to the gradual disappearance of the use of the psychodynamic model as the dominant framework in the treatment of individuals suffering from mental illness (Edwards, 1997). Recently, group treatments have received attention as a cost-effective means of treatment (Iglehart, 1994). A group format allows a number of patients struggling with similar life issues to come together and benefit by interacting with one another and a therapist, the group leader (Shapiro, 1995). Managed care companies support group designs, relying on numerous studies that demonstrate the efficacy of short-term therapeutic groups using behavioral and cognitive-behavioral approaches. Managed care organizations find group treatment inexpensive relative to other treatment methods, because one practitioner can treat many clients at once, significantly reducing billable hours of treatment incurred. The potential of group treatment to alleviate the psychological problems of large numbers of people at relatively low cost makes group therapy an attractive option for managed care companies (). Despite the utility gains, however, managed care companies do not rely on group treatments as wide ly as might be expected, primarily because of patients’ resistance to group treatment. Some patients find the idea of group treatment difficult to accept because they have a hard time  understanding how they will benefit. Many patients prefer individual treatment sessions, where they have the therapist’s undivided attention. These patients may be embarrassed about their problems and reject the notion of others besides their therapist providing input. The logistics of setting up short-term groups, along with current therapist practice patterns, present additional impediments to managed care’s use of group therapy (Crespi, 1997). Nevertheless, the immediate cost-effectiveness of groups, coupled with documented positive outcomes, has made the modality particularly appealing in mental health delivery systems and provides a compelling argument for their use (Crespi,1997). Projection Managed health care organizations have influenced the delivery of services in the mental health field considerably and will undoubtedly continue to do so (Eubanks et al., 1996). Whether the developments instituted by managed care companies are greeted with pleasure, indifference, or hostility, general agreement exists that the treatment of patients suffering from mental illness will be irrevocably changed as managed care continues to alter drastically the delivery, definition, and outcome of treatment that patients receive. In the future, indicators (Iglehart, 1994) suggest that nonpsychiatric practitioners will emerge as the dominant providers of treatment. According to Giles (1993), managed care companies will expect nonmedical practitioners, such as clinical social workers to provide the bulk of outpatient care in the mental health care field. Clinical social workers are cost-effective, fully qualified providers of mental health care services in the eyes of managed care companies. Distinctions between master’s-level and doctoral-level providers will become more evident as master’s-level practitioners assume primary responsibility for direct mental health services, and doctoral-level providers assume more administrative, supervisory, and research-oriented roles (Crespi, 1997). The rapid increase in managed care’s influence, accompanied by the reduction of referrals to more-expensive specialists, suggests that demand for clinical psychologists will continue to diminish (Johnson, 1997). As managed health care organizations restrict consumer choice of providers, many mental health professionals, such as clinical psychologists, may have difficulty joining reimbursement plans (Gibelman & Schervish, 1997). Despite the shift away  from doctoral-level providers and the narrowing role of the medical practitioner in the treatment regime of managed care companies, psychiatrists will likely have an essential and continuing role in the mental health care system. According to Giles (1993), managed mental health care still needs medical practitioners for their knowledge of psychopharmacology and experience in prescribing medications. Scientific literature has demonstrated that psychotropic medications are an effective and essential treatment component for most psychiatric illnesses, and psychiatrists, being physicians, are currently the only ones who can prescribe these drugs with the knowledge to do so effectively. Another likely development with the influence of managed health care is the rarity of the solo practitioner (Crespi, 1997). Individual practitioners and small group practices will likely remain, but will probably represent a much smaller proportion of psychotherapists (Committee o n Therapy, 1992). With commentators predicting a demise in solo private practice, practitioners will either have to affiliate with managed mental health care groups or forego clients with insurance in favor of those able to afford private payment (Gibelman & Schervish, 1996). The psychotherapist who decides to operate outside of the managed care system faces not only a degree of professional isolation, but also limitations in referrals and remuneration (Committee on Therapy). The managed care initiatives sweeping the nation have profoundly affected the ways that clinical social workers and other mental health practitioners deliver services to people suffering from mental illness (Shera, 1996). As these changes continue, clinicians working in a managed care environment will more often practice time-limited psychotherapeutic interventions and, in all but the rarest cases, the practice of unregimented intensive psychotherapy and psychoanalysis will take place outside of the confines of the managed care a rena. For the majority of mental health care consumers, therapeutic work will focus on precipitating stressors and acute exacerbation that may be treated within the reimbursable framework (Committee on Therapy, 1992; Crespi, 1997). Finally, with managed care’s increasing influence, use of outcome measurement and management will continue. Quantifiable data will play a larger role in treatment decisions. Funding sources of mental health care services will increasingly seek quantitative methods to measure the quality  and efficiency of different interventions to guide their purchasing decisions (Johnson, 1997). As managed care companies look for hard data to determine the most effective professionals and treatments, mental health care providers will have to quantitatively demonstrate effectiveness of interventions and treatment through evidence of patient improvement (Gibelman & Schervish, 1996). Thus, the ability to implement and participate in outcomes measurement processes is vita l for any practitioner who wishes to operate in the managed care environment. Conclusion Despite widespread criticism and various efforts at reform, managed care companies continue to expand. Clinical social workers currently involved in the mental health field, as well as incoming social work students interested in mental health, must take heed of the rapid developments in the field. Although the changes resulting from the influence of managed care present many challenges, they also create many opportunities for mental health care providers, and for clinical social workers in particular. To take advantage of these opportunities, clinical social workers, and the institutions educating them, must be prepared (Geller, 1996). Many clinicians currently practicing, as well as current and incoming graduate students, lack information on the breadth of these developments (Crespi, 1997). Clinical social workers must actively seek out continuing education courses, conferences, and journal articles discussing developments in the field related to managed mental health care to be better informed. In addition, schools of social work must update their curricula for incoming students to reflect the realities of changes in managed care. Graduate schools must educate future social workers regarding developments, providing students with the information and skills necessary to survive in this evolving culture (Shera, 1996). Many social work programs are discovering that traditional curricula are no longer adequate to prepare students for practice in the era of managed care. Managed care’s emphasis on the provision of mental health services at contained costs requires specialized practice skills, particularly rapid assessment, brief treatment, and the ability to document treatment outcomes. Social work educators must incorporate these elements into their programs. As managed care continues to expand and evolve, social work educators need to continue to evaluate its  effect on the training of current and potential clinical social workers. Educators in the field, along with graduate school instructors and administrators, must make the necessary changes to provide clinical social workers with the ability to adapt to the changing environment. Collaboration with managed care is necessary for professional survival (Eubanks et al., 1996). Clinical social workers have an enormous role in the treatment of people suffering from mental illness and have a real opportunity to play a major role in managed mental health care (Shera, 1996). Clinical social workers must rise to the challenge.

The Secrets of Explanatory Essay Topics Exposed

The Secrets of Explanatory Essay Topics Exposed Starting off with a substantial occurrence, discovery, or study will provide you with more points in factual research too. If you're writing a dissertation or a thesis in the past year of your doctorate, then you need to collect first-hand data with the assistance of surveys, questionnaires and interviews etc.. You're not writing a report about it. Students may have to find out more about the topics as a way to respond with sufficient depth and complexity. When you are in possession of a well-formulated topic, it's a half success of your final writing. When writing an explanatory essay, it's excellent to stick to the rubric so that you're in a position to capture all of the info required, thus increasing the odds of the writer achieving maximum points. If you're going to compose an expository essay, be ready to devote much time hitting books. If you are a newcomer to writing informative essays or simply struggle when it has to do with thinking of informative essay topics, then there's a great chance you might be searching for some help. How to Find Explanatory Essay Topics Online It's possible to experience such scenarios. Explain'' is to express the info on this issue so as to make it even more understandable to the reader. When selecting a business topic, make certain to use a strong argumentation and see whether you can compare and contrast the issue to an opinion that you are thinking about! An explanatoryessay, it's necessary for you to know, attempts at explaining and presenting important information regarding the topic in question. The Explanatory Essay Topics Game The principal portion of your essay is composed of the paragraphs within the body. The majority of the moment, expository essays are presented by offering a wide variety of topics and methods to bring up the idea. There are lots of expository essay topics to select from. Therefore, if you prefer to have nontrivial expository es say topic that demands thorough research, choose something which refers to a technological region of study. For instance, if it's only a very simple essay then you may just will need to incorporate an introduction, a body section, and a conclusion. An introduction has become the most significant part your bit of writing. The outline will act as a blueprint for your true essay. Then the next step is going to be to find out more about the expository essay structure. The One Thing to Do for Explanatory Essay Topics Look closely at your language as it ought to be eerror-free Imagine your essay is a precious stone and create all its faces shine using an easily readable and unique language. From its name, you might guess that you need to have a very clear picture of a specific thing to be able to offer your reader with a crystal clear and concise explanation. If someone feels enthusiastic about something, they'll be prepared to devote much time creating a research and will achieve success. Think about a renowned person whom you'd love to meet and explain why you would want to meet them. Synthesize all the information and evidence you've used throughout the duration of your essay. If this is the case, you could have an excellent beginning to your expository essay. In your introduction, you might have laid out what would be addressed in the essay. You can't begin writing an essay without a sharp clue about what things to write. Allow the professional academic writers help to your informative paper! A strong thesis isn't required. The fundamental structure of an informative essay is extremely easy. Writing an outline is particularly helpful once you are just about to compose a thorough academic paper. In all sorts of essay, always make certain that every component of your essay supports your thesis statement. Choose the one which you liek to compose an ideal expository essay! The exact first step in writing an interesting expository essay is to opt for a wonderful topic. Essay writing provides plenty of benefits to students in the academe. You will receive your assignments written exactly based on your college's guidelines and we also permit you to file your assignments at the proper time. The perfect way to improve writing skills is by way of regular practice. Explain why it's helpful to organize your materials and activities.

American Immigration And The United States Essay - 782 Words

â€Å"Early American immigration was sparse when the colonies were in time of conflict in the Revolutionary war. It was not until the late 1790s, Congress passed the first naturalization act.† (Horvat, 2006) During the 1700s many of the immigrants were from Christian background, The United states wanted to limit the number of drunks and the large majority of catholic decentness who refuses to assimilate since they just increased poverty levels and stole American jobs. So the united states began to limit the amount of ships entering the ports of the country. Each new wave of immigration to the United States has risen the degree of hostility and fears that immigrants will harm American society or will not conform to the prevailing of the American way of life. Doug Brugge mentions that during the 1700s the colonies grew quickly as English settlers and black slaves were joined by Scottish, Irish, and German immigrants. Immigration was causing the larger cities to double and triple in size, but often urban poverty grew apace. As Boston grew, from 1687 to 1770, the percentage of adult males who were poor and who owned no property, doubled from 14 percent of adult males to 29 percent. And the loss of property meant loss of voting rights (Horvat, 2006). In my opinion a large rise in poverty at this time was due to the lack of development in the country, poverty can only be helped when there is an increase in jobs and many of the large companies or farms were owned by old stockShow MoreRelatedEssay on The Impact of Latin American Immigration on America1553 Words   |  7 Pages Immigration is the process of entry of individuals into a new country (23). Throughout past centuries, immigration has been a means of discovery and exploration of new lands. 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